Self-Directed
Learning
The following article is from the Office of Educational Research and
Improvement which is part of the Department of Education.
THIS DIGEST WAS CREATED BY ERIC, THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER. FOR MORE INFORMATION ABOUT ERIC, CONTACT ACCESS ERIC
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The concept of Self-Directed Learning (SDL) is one which educators have
investigated and discussed for many years. This Digest will examine the
basic tenets of SDL, and it will discuss recently conducted research
findings germane to its application in K-12 classrooms.
Self-directed learning, which has its roots in adult education, is an
approach that has also been tried with learners in elementary and
secondary schools. There may be slight variations in how different
educators define SDL, but a survey of the literature on the subject
identifies several tenets that are central to the concept.
*As the term suggests, SDL views learners as responsible owners and
managers of their own learning process. SDL integrates self-management
(management of the context, including the social setting, resources, and
actions) with self-monitoring (the process whereby the learners monitor,
evaluate and regulate their cognitive learning strategies) (Bolhuis, 1996;
Garrison, 1997).
*SDL recognizes the significant role of motivation and volition in
initiating and maintaining learners' efforts. Motivation drives the
decision to participate, and volition sustains the will to see a task
through to the end so that goals are achieved (Corno, 1992; Garrison,
1997).
*In SDL, control gradually shifts from teachers to learners. Learners
exercise a great deal of independence in setting learning goals and
deciding what is worthwhile learning as well as how to approach the
learning task within a given framework (Lyman, 1997; Morrow, Sharkey, &
Firestone, 1993).
*Teachers scaffold learning by making learning 'visible.' They model
learning strategies and work with students so that they develop the
ability to use them on their own (Bolhuis, 1996; Corno, 1992; Leal, 1993).
*SDL is, ironically, highly collaborative. Learners collaborate with
teachers and peers in (Guthrie, Alao & Rinehart; 1997; Temple & Rodero,
1995).
*SDL develops domain-specific knowledge as well as the ability to
transfer conceptual knowledge to new situations. It seeks to bridge the
gap between school knowledge and real-world problems by considering how
people learn in real life (Bolhuis, 1996; Temple & Rodero, 1995).
The benefits of SDL are best described in terms of the type of learners
it develops. The literature on SDL asserts that self-directed learners
demonstrate a greater awareness of their responsibility in making learning
meaningful and monitoring themselves (Garrison, 1997). They are curious
and willing to try new things (Lyman, 1997), view problems as challenges,
desire change, and enjoy learning (Taylor, 1995). Taylor also found them
to be motivated and persistent, independent, self-disciplined,
self-confident and goal-oriented.
Self-directed learning allows learners to be more effective learners
and social beings. Guthrie, et al. (1996) noted that the self-directed
learners in a Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction (CORI) program demon-strated
the ability to search for information in multiple texts, employ different
strategies to achieve goals, and to represent ideas in different forms
(drawing and writing). Morrow, et al. (1993) observe that with proper
planning and implementation, self-directed learning can encourage students
to develop their own rules and leadership patterns.
One of the most important tasks of the teacher is to raise student
awareness of their roles in learning. Taylor (1995) suggests engaging
students in discussion on topics from the Self-Directed Learning Readiness
Scale. Examples of topics are: I know that I want to learn and that I am a
learner, so if I want to learn something, I can, and I like to learn and
to solve problems because I know that thinking 'hard' can be fun. The
exercise of evaluating oneself on such topics was found to have positively
influenced learner awareness. Lyman (1997), who works with readers,
suggests generating similar discussion through the use of questions
designed to help learners become aware of what good readers do and how to
become one. Among the examples he provides are: Did you read better today
than yesterday? Could you keep the ideas in your book straight in your
mind? Were there words you did not know? How did you figure them out?
Learner participation in decision-making is another fundamental aspect
of the SDL approach. Taylor advocates involving students in decisions
concerning what is to be learned, when and how it should be learned, and
how it should be evaluated. In addition, every proponent of SDL emphasizes
the importance of allowing learners to pursue their own interests so that
learning becomes more meaningful. Morrow, et al. (1993) report that when
writers are allowed to choose their own topics, they write more often and
they write longer pieces. Students do not have to be given total freedom,
however. Teachers could, for instance, establish a thematic framework
within which students are given choices (Guthrie, et al., 1997; Temple &
Rodero, 1995).
Lyman (1997) and Bolhuis (1996) stress that teachers who want to
encourage SDL must free themselves from a preoccupation with tracking and
correcting errors, a practice that is ego-threatening (Guthrie, et al.
1996). Lyman and Bolhuis advocate greater tolerance of uncertainty and
encourage risk-taking, and capitalizing on learners' strong points instead
of focusing on weaknesses, as it is more beneficial for learners to
achieve a few objectives of importance to them than it is to fulfill all
the objectives that are important to the teacher. Leal (1993) advocates
allowing learners to explore ideas through peer discussions - even without
fully intact answers - a process that can yield new and valuable insights.
Corno (1992) suggests allowing learners to pursue personal interests
without the threat of formal evaluation. Even if they make mistakes while
doing so, the activities will sustain their interest, transcend
frustration, and eventually break barriers to achievement. According to
Lyman, Uninterrupted Sustained Silent Reading may be one way of
accomplishing this objective in the reading classroom.
To establish the habit of self-monitoring, teachers need to encourage
learners to reflect on what they did and to revise attempted work (Corno,
1992). Keeping journals is one way of maintaining a record of the learning
process.
Since SDL stresses meaningful learning, Temple and Rodero (1995)
advocate a situated learning approach, in which teachers bring real-life
problems into the classroom for learners to work on. They advise against
'sugar-coating' work with fun, the rationale being that if the tasks are
meaningful, learners will work on them willingly. Learners should also be
allowed to collaborate with the teacher in determining deadlines and other
regulations.
Finally, teachers need to model learning strategies such as predicting,
questioning, clarifying, and summarizing, so that students will develop
the ability to use these strategies on their own. Teachers also need to
allow individual learners to approach a task in different ways using
different strategies (Many, Fyfe, Lewis, & Mitchell, 1996).
Researchers have found that as children grow, they have an increasing
desire for autonomy. SDL may be one way of harnessing that natural desire
to help achieve a meaningful learning experience that will last through
adulthood.
REFERENCES
Bolhuis, S. (1996). Towards Active and Selfdirected Learning. Preparing
for Lifelong Learning, with Reference to Dutch Secondary Education. Paper
presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research
Association (New York, NY, April 8-12, 1996).
Corno, L. (1992). Encouraging Students to Take Responsibility for
Learning and Performance. Elementary School Journal; v93 n1 p69-83 Sep
1992. [EJ 453 441]
Garrison, D.R. (1997). Self-directed learning: Toward a comprehensive
model. In Adult Education Quarterly, Fall 97 v 48 n 1, p18, 16 p.
Guthrie, J.T., Solomon, A. & Rinehart, J.M. (1997). Engagement in
Reading for Young Adolescents. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy; v40
n6 p438-46 Mar 1997. [EJ 547 197]
Guthrie, J.T, and Others. (1996). Growth of Literacy Engagement:
Changes in Motivations and Strategies during Concept-Oriented Reading
Instruction. Reading Research Quarterly; v31 n3 p306-32 Jul-Sep 1996. [EJ
530 522]
Leal, D.J. (1993). The Power of Literary Peer-Group Discussions: How
Children Collaboratively Negotiate Meaning. Reading Teacher; v47 n2
p114-20 Oct 1993. [EJ 470 287]
Hunt, L.C., Jr. (1997). The Effect of Self-Selection, Interest, and
Motivation Upon Independent, Instructional, and Frustrational Levels.
Reading Teacher; v50 n4 p278-82 Dec-Jan 1996-97. [EJ 547 089]
Many, J.E., Fyfe, R., Lewis, G. & Mitchell, E. (1996). Traversing the
Topical Landscape: Exploring Students' Self-Directed
Reading-Writing-Research Processes. Reading Research Quarterly; v31 n1
p12-35 Jan-Mar 1996. [EJ 521 366]
Morrow, L.M. & Others (1993). Promoting Independent Reading and Writing
through Self-Directed Literacy Activities in a Collaborative Setting.
Reading Research Report No. 2. [ED 356 455]
Taylor, B. (1995). Self-Directed Learning: Revisiting an Idea Most
Appropriate for Middle School Students. Paper presented at the Combined
Meeting of the Great Lakes and Southeast International Reading
Association, Nashville, TN, Nov 11-15. [ED 395 287]
Temple, C., & Rodero, M.L. (1995). Active Learning in a Democratic
Classroom: The "Pedagogical Invariants" of Celestin Freinet (Reading
around the World). Reading Teacher; v49 n2 p164-67 Oct 1995. [EJ 515 907]
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Digest #169 is EDO-CS-01-10 and was published in December 2001 by the
ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English & Communication, 2805 E 10th St.,
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Title: Self-Directed Learning. ERIC Digest.
Note: ERIC/REC Digest number D169.
Document Type: Information Analyses---ERIC Information Analysis
Products (IAPs) (071); Information Analyses---ERIC Digests (Selected) in
Full Text (073);
Available From: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and
Communication, Indiana University, 2805 E. 10th Street, Suite 140,
Bloomington, IN 47408-2698. Tel: 800-759-4723; Web site: http://eric.indiana.edu.
Descriptors: Educational Benefits, Elementary Secondary Education,
Independent Study, Learner Controlled Instruction, Student Role, Teacher
Role
Identifiers: ERIC Digests, Research Results, Self Direction, Self
Monitoring
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